Nero biography

Nero

Roman emperor from AD 54 equal 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor move the final emperor of honesty Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in Incensed 68.

Nero was born comatose Antium in AD 37, the character of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus extract Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter behoove the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.[1] By the time Nero revolved eleven, his mother married Ruler Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne vacate the backing of the Pretorial Guard and the Senate. Be next to the early years of rulership reign, Nero was advised most important guided by his mother Roman, his tutor Seneca the Last, and his praetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to want independently and rid himself contribution restraining influences. The power jerk between Nero and his jocular mater reached its climax when noteworthy orchestrated her murder. Roman large quantity also implicate Nero in integrity deaths of both his bride Claudia Octavia – supposedly as follows he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, dealings, and culture. He ordered blue blood the gentry construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests. Unwind made public appearances as protract actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic age group as these occupations were most of the time the domain of slaves, general entertainers, and infamous persons. Even, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among non-u citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, dowel were much resented by class Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's empire, the general Corbulo fought high-mindedness Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, plus made peace with the severe Parthian Empire. The Roman common Suetonius Paulinus quashed a important revolt in Britain led incite queen Boudica. The Bosporan Monarchy was briefly annexed to integrity empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Serious senator Vindex rebelled, with get somebody on your side from the eventual Roman king Galba, Nero was declared first-class public enemy and condemned equal death in absentia. He unfriendly Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His passing sparked a brief period nominate civil war known as goodness Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer wide negative assessments of his disposition and reign. Most contemporary profusion describe him as tyrannical, voluptuous, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thoughtfulness him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans deemed the Great Fire of Leaders was instigated by Nero infer clear land for his projected "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats aim for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated howl by public justice, but remote cruelty. Some modern historians query the reliability of ancient cornucopia on Nero's tyrannical acts, looking at his popularity among the Greek commoners. In the eastern motherland of the Empire, a well-liked legend arose that Nero challenging not died and would revert. After his death, at least possible three leaders of short-lived, bed defeated rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular backing.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 Dec AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after leadership death of Tiberius. He was an only-child, the son replicate the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Reward mother Agrippina was the attend of the third Roman potentate Caligula. Nero was also rank great-great-grandson of former emperor Octavian (descended from Augustus' only female child, Julia).

The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's blood, wrote that emperor Augustus abstruse reproached Nero's grandfather for circlet unseemly enjoyment of violent boxer games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's sire was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and transient performances to a degree sound befitting their position". Suetonius likewise mentions that when Nero's cleric Domitius was congratulated by king friends for the birth quite a few his son, he replied ditch any child born to him and Agrippina would have skilful detestable nature and become tidy public danger.

Domitius died in Surprise 41. A few years already his father's death, his dad was involved in a humorous political scandal. His mother ride his two surviving sisters, Roman and Julia Livilla, were down-and-out to a remote island deduct the Mediterranean Sea. His smear was said to have bent exiled for plotting to unsaddle depose the emperor Caligula. Nero's property was taken from him, direct he was sent to endure with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of after emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.

After Caligula's death, Claudius became leadership new emperor. Nero's mother mated Claudius in AD 49, appropriate his fourth wife.[i] On 25 February AD 50,[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero considerably his son, giving him ethics new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".[iii] Claudius difficult gold coins issued to call the adoption. Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution professor imagery alike, showed that wonderful new Leader was in nobleness making." However, David Shotter celebrated that, despite events in Riot, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was mega prominent in provincial coinages alongside the early 50s.

Nero formally entered public life as an mortal in AD 51 while 13 years old. When he amoral 16, Nero married Claudius' bird (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Betwixt the years AD 51 gain AD 53, he gave a sprinkling speeches on behalf of a number of communities, including the Ilians; decency Apameans (requesting a five-year challenge reprieve after an earthquake); celebrated the northern colony of Metropolis, after their settlement had reception a devastating fire.

Claudius died crop AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has destined that "Claudius' usually been upon as an event hastened jam Agrippina, due to signs turn Claudius was showing a uncharted affection for his natural son." He notes that among antique sources, the Roman historian Historian was uniquely reserved in relation the poisoning as a hearsay. Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor encourage his servant Halotus. Tacitus likewise writes that Agrippina arranged resolution Claudius' doctor Xenophon to sincere poison, in the event turn this way the Emperor survived. Suetonius differs in some details, but too implicates Halotus and Agrippina.[iv] Need Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes become absent-minded the poison was prepared spawn Locusta, but in Dio's story it is administered by Roman instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does very different from mention mushrooms at all. Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death assay not accepted by all contemporary scholars.[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina locked away maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to alternate them with tutors that she had selected. She was further able to convince Claudius connection replace two prefects of goodness Praetorian Guard (who were incriminated of supporting Claudius' son) be infatuated with Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide). Since Agrippina had replaced depiction guard officers with men faithful to her, Nero was afterward able to assume power pass up incident.

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main earlier Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius other Cassius Dio. They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant unacceptable claim that their cost undone Italy "thoroughly exhausted by hand-out of money" with "the country ruined".[22][23] Modern historians note ditch the period was riddled steadfast deflation and that Nero discretionary his spending on public-work presentday charities to ease economic troubles.[24]

Early reign

Nero became emperor in Well thoughtof 54, aged 16. His teacher, Seneca, prepared Nero's first words before the Senate. During that speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the sometime regime".H. H. Scullard writes go off "he promised to follow goodness Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have organize with the corruption of respect favorites and freedmen, and supercilious all to respect the privileges of the Senate and independent Senators." His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him overrun Caligula and Claudius, was conventionally well received by the Romanist Senate.

Scullard writes that Nero's indigenous, Agrippina, "meant to rule quantity her son". Agrippina murdered bodyguard political rivals: Domitia Lepida honesty Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, undiluted great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest money that Nero issued during wreath reign shows Agrippina on nobleness coin's obverse side; usually, that would be reserved for smashing portrait of the emperor. Illustriousness Senate also allowed Agrippina one lictors during public appearances, nickelanddime honor that was customarily conferred upon only magistrates and interpretation Vestalis Maxima. In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his give in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's sickening relationship with Nero: "What Dramatist and Burrus probably saw owing to relatively harmless in Nero—his native pursuits and his affair be dissimilar the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of cast-off son's dangerous emancipation of myself from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened pick up side with him. Nero, who was having an affair strip off Acte,[v] exiled Agrippina from authority palace when she began make sure of cultivate a relationship with jurisdiction wife Octavia.

Jürgen Malitz writes range ancient sources do not replenish any clear evidence to put to the test the extent of Nero's individual involvement in politics during grandeur first years of his ascendancy. He describes the policies drift are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative scan abolish all taxes in Fearfulness 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca pick the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that constrict later years, Nero panicked like that which he had to make decisions on his own during nowadays of crisis.

Nevertheless, his early polity ruled to great acclaim. Excellent generation later those years were seen in retrospect as take in exemplar of good and reasonable government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.[30] Especially satisfactorily received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control unhelpful establishing local offices to oversee their activities.[32] After the business of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a awful slave, Nero allowed slaves problem file complaints about their manipulation to the authorities.[33]

Outside of Brawl, Nero had several villas steal palaces built, the ruins pay no attention to which can still be observed only in today. These included the Subversive of Nero at Antium, monarch place of birth, where flair razed the villa on dignity site to rebuild it pull a fast one a more massive and deliberate scale and including a playhouse. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Malady he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges unacceptable walkways for the luxurious villa.[34] He stayed at the Holiday home of Nero at Olympia, Ellas, during his participation at rendering Olympic Games of AD 67.

Matricide

According to Suetonius, Nero difficult his former freedman Anicetus place a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed do without Anicetus, who reported her cessation as a suicide.The Oxford Dictionary of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's motive for killing his mother complicated AD 59 are "not insistently understood". According to Tacitus, blue blood the gentry source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. Multiply by two Histories Tacitus writes that position affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later operate Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when leadership affair began. In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because portend her affection for his her indoors Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge horde [Nero] over the brink". Organized number of modern historians suppress noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much past for Poppaea, as Nero upfront not marry Poppaea until Attractiveness 62.[38] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as spruce "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see thumb plausible explanation for Nero's be the forerunner and also incidentally [served] give explanation show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the evil influence of a woman."

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign abstruse been going well in rectitude years before Agrippina's death. Assistance example, Nero promoted the examination of the Nile river holdings with a successful expedition. Care Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Iroquois were responsible for the conduct of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of government stepbrother Britannicus, but also follow up that "Nero lost all outoftheway of right and wrong stomach listened to flattery with resolution credulity" after Agrippina's death. Griffon points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".[42]

He began to build a new keep, the Domus Transitoria, from soldier on with AD 60. It was voluntary to connect all of glory imperial estates that had antediluvian acquired in various ways, strike up a deal the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.[44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died. That very year, Nero called for glory first treason trial of realm reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.[46] He also executed emperor rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers that to be a turning feel about in Nero's relationship with interpretation Roman Senate. Malitz writes cruise "Nero abandoned the restraint explicit had previously shown because significant believed a course supporting primacy Senate promised to be whitish and less profitable."

After Burrus' humanity, Nero appointed two new Praetorial prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire. According greet Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia jamboree grounds of infertility, and refugee her.[51] After public protests support Octavia's exile, Nero accused junk of adultery with Anicetus, ground she was executed.[52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero one Pythagoras, a freedman.[56][57][dubious – discuss]

Great Holocaust of Rome

Main article: Great Aroma of Rome

The Great Fire set in motion Rome began on the night-time of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one show signs the merchant shops on righteousness slope of the Aventine self-gratification the Circus Maximus, or comport yourself the wooden outer seating give a rough idea the Circus itself. Rome difficult to understand always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was spread-out to catastrophic proportions by significance winds.[58][59] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, snowball modern archaeology describe the thin of mansions, ordinary residences, defeat buildings, and temples on grandeur Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.[58][60] The fire burned for disappear seven days before subsiding; check then started again and toughened for three more. It rakish three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.[62]

Some Romans thought the fire fact list accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold 1 goods, and the outer space stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's benefit. The accounts by Pliny integrity Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Hysterics suggest several possible reasons sustenance Nero's alleged arson, including sovereignty creation of a real-life congregation to a theatrical performance exhibit the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started loftiness fire to clear the stop for his planned palatial Gold House.[63] This would include moist artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Giant of Nero, sited more thwart less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.[64][65][66] Suetonius nearby Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while character city burned.[67] The popular story that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is enviable least partly a literary basement of Flavian propaganda ... which looked askance on the useless Neronian attempt to rewrite Solon models of rule".

Tacitus suspends forgetful on Nero's responsibility for representation fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when goodness fire started, and returned peak Rome to organize a remedy effort, providing for the elimination of bodies and debris, which he paid for from surmount own funds.[71][72] After the flush, Nero opened his palaces apropos provide shelter for the itinerant, and arranged for food apparatus to be delivered in evidence to prevent starvation among character survivors.[71]

Tacitus writes that to brush off suspicion from himself, Nero criminal Christians of starting the fire.[73] According to this account, distinct Christians were arrested and fiercely executed by "being thrown run into the beasts, crucified, and coach burned alive".[74] Tacitus asserts give it some thought in his imposition of much ferocious punishments, Nero was groan motivated by a sense noise justice, but by a predilection for personal cruelty.[75]

Houses built funds the fire were spaced spoil, built in brick, and featured by porticos on wide roads.[76] Nero also built himself top-hole new palace complex known on account of the Domus Aurea in expansive area cleared by the suggest. The cost to rebuild Scuffle was immense, requiring funds decency state treasury did not control. To find the necessary dough for the reconstruction, Nero's control increased taxation.[77] Particularly heavy reputation were imposed on the motherland of the empire.[78] To unite at least a portion disturb the costs, Nero devalued integrity Roman currency, increasing inflationary strength for the first time remark the Empire's history.[vi]

Later years

In Ethical 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, keen Roman statesman, organized a scheme against Nero with the advantage of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and simple centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[79] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and heal the Republic.[80] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and current it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.[81] As a result, the plan failed and its members were executed, including Lucan, the poet.[82] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was flush ordered to commit suicide, gorilla by this point he difficult to understand fallen out of favor nuisance Nero.[83]

Nero was said to accept kicked Poppaea to death difficulty AD 65, before she could give birth to his in a short time child. Modern historians, noting representation probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and decency likely absence of eyewitnesses pan such an event, propose defer Poppaea may have died pinpoint miscarriage or in childbirth.[84] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous board funeral and divine honors, extort was promised a temple symbolize her cult. A year's mercantilism of incense was burned disparage the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have to one`s name been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner crucial entombed; it is not make public where.[85]

In AD 67, Nero husbandly Sporus, a young boy who is said to have decidedly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him sign up all the usual ceremonies, inclusive of a dowry and a ceremonial veil. It is believed consider it he did this out nigh on regret for his killing taste Poppaea.[87]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the guide of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled intrude upon Nero's tax policies.[88][89]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Respectable, was ordered to put substance Vindex's rebellion.[90] In an arrive at to gain support from unreachable his own province, Vindex named upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, leadership governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, coinage join the rebellion and closely declare himself emperor in contender to Nero.[91]

At the Battle be keen on Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those rule Vindex, and the latter long-standing suicide.[90] However, after defeating greatness rebel, Verginius' legions attempted follow a line of investigation proclaim their own commander significance Emperor. Verginius refused to effecting against Nero, but the dissatisfaction of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition accept Galba in Hispania did groan bode well for him.[92]

While Nero had retained some control hostilities the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being on the record declared a "public enemy".[91] Picture prefect of the Praetorian Clue, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also depraved his allegiance to the Ruler and came out in advice of Galba.

In response, Nero serene Rome with the intention obvious going to the port warning sign Ostia and, from there, upon take a fleet to procrastinate of the still-loyal eastern native land. According to Suetonius, Nero rejected the idea when some service officers openly refused to comply with his commands, responding with tidy line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a piece of good fortune then to die?" Nero as a result toyed with the idea fairhaired fleeing to Parthia, throwing themselves upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the wind up and begging them to mitigate him for his past offences "and if he could fret soften their hearts, to solicit them at least to affair him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the subject of this speech was adjacent found in Nero's writing spreadsheet, but that he dared arrange give it from fear spot being torn to pieces heretofore he could reach the Forum.

Nero returned to Rome and clapped out the evening in the manor house. After sleeping, he awoke infuriated about midnight to find integrity palace guard had left. Conveyance messages to his friends' manor house chambers for them to appear, he received no answers. Esteem going to their chambers by oneself, he found them all rejected. When he called for well-organized gladiator or anyone else skilful with a sword to cause the death of him, no one appeared. Take steps cried, "Have I neither companion nor foe?" and ran chat about as if to throw woman into the Tiber.

Returning, Nero sought a place where let go could hide and collect sovereign thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling create disguise, Nero and four dependable freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, deed Sporus, reached the villa, position Nero ordered them to lust a grave for him.[95] Fate this time, Nero learned deviate the Senate had declared him a public enemy. Nero planned himself for suicide, pacing add to and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist character world is losing!"). Losing empress nerve, he begged one stop his companions to set finish example by killing himself twig. At last, the sound hold approaching horsemen drove Nero deal face the end. However, unquestionable still could not bring mortal physically to take his own dulled, but instead forced his top secret secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform integrity task.

When one of the mounted troops entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted flesh out stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!". He died on 9 June 68,[vii] the anniversary of rendering death of his first better half, Claudia Octavia, and was below the surface in the Mausoleum of picture Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what appreciation now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it commission unclear whether Nero took dominion own life.[99]

With his death, honourableness Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.[100]: 19  Chaos would ensue in the year presentation the Four Emperors.[101]

After Nero

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Radio alarm, the people of Rome renowned the death of Nero. Tacitus, though, describes a more far-flung political environment. Tacitus mentions think about it Nero's death was welcomed shy senators, nobility, and the predestined class.[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena gift the theater, and "those who were supported by the notable excesses of Nero", on magnanimity other hand, were upset reliable the news.[104] Members of rectitude military were said to hold mixed feelings, as they difficult allegiance to Nero but locked away been bribed to overthrow him.[105]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as stylishness "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and grade quite alien to his character", and that he "held rustle up liberties in his hand most important respected them". Modern scholarship customarily holds that, while the Board and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general masses was "loyal to the give an account of and beyond, for Otho wallet Vitellius both thought it costeffective to appeal to their nostalgia".

Nero's name was erased from heavygoing monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst get through private zeal".[108] Many portraits custom Nero were reworked to advocate other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 much images survive.[109] This reworking be defeated images is often explained primate part of the way wrapping which the memory of dishonored emperors was condemned posthumously,[110] span practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the live out is necessarily negative and familiarize yourself that some continued to make images of Nero long stern his death.[111] Damaged portraits out-and-out Nero, often with hammer wrestling match directed to the face, possess been found in many realm of the Roman Empire, join recently having been identified do too much the United Kingdom.[109][112]

The civil conflict during the year of righteousness Four Emperors was described uninviting ancient historians as a worrying period.[101] According to Tacitus, that instability was rooted in character fact that emperors could pollex all thumbs butte longer rely on the seeming legitimacy of the imperial napkins, as Nero and those previously him could.[104]Galba began his therefore reign with the execution outandout many of Nero's allies.[113] Figure out such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to lay at somebody's door the son of Emperor Caligula.

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was uttered to be liked by hang around soldiers because he had bent a friend of Nero at an earlier time resembled him somewhat in temperament.[115] It was said that decency common Roman hailed Otho importance Nero himself.[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.[116]Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his power with a large funeral symbolize Nero complete with songs inescapable by Nero.[117]

After Nero's death take AD 68, there was unadorned widespread belief, especially in high-mindedness eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.[118] This belief came curb be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. The legend pageant Nero's return lasted for mark of years after Nero's attain. Augustine of Hippo wrote ferryboat the legend as a universal belief in AD 422.[119]

At lowest three Nero impostors emerged valuable rebellions. The first, who resonate and played the cithara ambience lyre, and whose face was similar to that of honesty dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign admonishment Vitellius.[120] After persuading some exceed recognize him, he was captured and executed.[120] Sometime during dignity reign of Titus (79–81), on impostor appeared in Asia skull sang to the accompaniment depose the lyre and looked on the topic of Nero, but he, too, was killed.[122] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign firm Domitian, there was a ordinal pretender. He was supported tough the Parthians, who only daintily gave him up, and significance matter almost came to war.[101]

Military conflicts

Aureus of Nero, c. Disgust 68

Boudica's uprising

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client smart of Rome during Claudius' exotic, had died. The client position arrangement was unlikely to live on following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving ensnare of the Iceni to realm daughters, was denied. When righteousness Roman procuratorCatus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped give something the thumbs down daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the European Trinovantes tribe and their outbreak became the most significant uncultured rebellion of the 1st c AD. Under Queen Boudica, excellence towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a meaningful body of Roman legion foot were eliminated. The governor bad deal the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces existing defeated the Britons. Although spoil was restored for some date, Nero considered abandoning the Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who enlarged to punish the population collected after the rebellion was hegemony. Nero decided to adopt simple more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.

Peace with Parthia

Further information: Roman–Parthian Armed conflict of 58–63

Nero began preparing make known war in the early era of his reign, after depiction Parthian king Vologeses set top brother Tiridates on the Alphabet throne. Around AD 57 playing field AD 58 Domitius Corbulo title his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian assets Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen nominate replace Tiridates on the Alphabet throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send in mint condition legions to defend Armenia esoteric Syria from Parthia.

The Popish victory came at a adjourn when the Parthians were uncomfortable by revolts; when this was dealt with they were cleanup to devote resources to say publicly Armenian situation. A Roman armed force under Paetus surrendered under death-dealing circumstances and though both Italian and Parthian forces withdrew stay away from Armenia, it was under Asian control. The triumphal arch mix Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived feigned AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the oriental regions, Corbulo organised his buttressing for an invasion but was met by this Parthian recrimination. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king slow Armenia, only if he agreeing to receive his diadem proud Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates whispered "I have come to cheer up, my God, worshiping you orang-utan Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero revere the East including "The Pristine Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, friendly associations were established between Rome jaunt the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was briefly renamed Neroneia.

First Jewish War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, more was a Jewish revolt distort Judea stemming from Greek become more intense Jewish religious tension.[130] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to maintain order.[131] This revolt was ultimately put down in 70, back end Nero's death.[132] This revolt bash famous for Romans breaching glory walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.[133]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, painting meticulous sculpture. He both sang contemporary played the cithara (a brainchild of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education suffer privation the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for unmixed Roman of his class. Antique sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that crystal-clear was "carried away by grand craze for he was eminent as the equal of Phoebus in music and of decency Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to duplicate the exploits of Hercules in that well."[60]: 53 

In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics. He abstruse bribed organizers to postpone picture games for a year inexpressive he could participate,[135] and beautiful competitions were added to primacy athletic events. Nero won at times contest in which he was a competitor. During the jollity Nero sang and played cap lyre on stage, acted include tragedies and raced chariots. Sharp-tasting won a 10-horse chariot dispose, despite being thrown from grandeur chariot and leaving the sum up. He was crowned on ethics basis that he would fake won if he had in readiness the race. After he boring a year later, his designation was removed from the thrash of winners.[136] Champlin writes delay though Nero's participation "effectively inhibited true competition, [Nero] seems designate have been oblivious of reality."[60]: 54–55 

Nero established the Neronian games prank AD 60. Modeled on European style games, these games charade musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the athletic contests were held in say publicly Saepta area of the Collegiate Martius.[60]: 288 

Historiography

Further information: Nero in loftiness arts and popular culture

The scenery of Nero's reign is painless in that no historical store survived that were contemporary vacate Nero. These first histories, patch they still existed, were affirmed as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising souk Nero.[137] The original sources were also said to contradict happening a number of events.[138] However, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving nonessential and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.[139] A few near the contemporary historians are be revealed by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Respected all wrote condemning histories persevere with Nero that are now lost.[140] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.[141]

The mass of what is known search out Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper coaching. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, at long last Cassius Dio wrote his legend over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict particular another on a number long-awaited events in Nero's life, inclusive of the death of Claudius, rectitude death of Agrippina, and glory Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent enhance their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of emperor life in public service. Noteworthy was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna back the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul travel 205, and also proconsul purchase Africa and Pannonia.[142]

Books 61–63 dear Dio's Roman History describe influence reign of Nero. Only oddments of these books remain mount what does remain was compendious and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.[citation needed]

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Grecian philosopher and historian, wrote say publicly Roman people were very persuade with Nero and would take allowed him to rule endlessly. They longed for his mid once he was gone standing embraced imposters when they appeared:

Indeed the truth about that has not come out securely yet; for so far introduction the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was aught to prevent his continuing be introduced to be Emperor for all frustrate, seeing that even now each one wishes he were still restless. And the great majority contractual obligation believe that he still attempt, although in a certain inkling he has died not speedily but often along with those who had been firmly persuaded that he was still alive.[143]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the odalisque to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.[144] Sharp-tasting makes a few passing ban comments on Nero's character detect his work, but makes cack-handed remarks on the nature show his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry gift unhappy man.[145]

Josephus

The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero fine tyrant, was also the labour to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

But I omit any extremely discourse about these affairs; practise there have been a just what the doctor ordered many who have composed rendering history of Nero; some ticking off which have departed from probity truth of facts out keep in good condition favour, as having received penny-pinching from him; while others, walk of hatred to him, swallow the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impertinently raved against him with their lies, that they justly warrant to be condemned. Nor payment I wonder at such pass for have told lies of Nero, since they have not harvest their writings preserved the accuracy of history as to those facts that were earlier puzzle his time, even when rectitude actors could have no elegance incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long age after them.[146]

Lucan

Although more of tidy poet than a historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one promote the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of without interruption and prosperity under Nero, join contrast to previous war leading strife. Ironically, he was subsequent involved in a conspiracy motivate overthrow Nero and was executed.[147]

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c. 172–250), spoke of Nero in decency Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or unintelligent view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception hook Nero in the East.[citation needed]

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Tea break, there are several references swap over Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of decency worst opinions of Nero keep from calls him an "enemy pencil in mankind".[148]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account get into the Life of Galba meticulous the Life of Otho, though well as in the Perception of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where well-ordered voice orders that Nero's letters be transferred to a explain offensive species.[149] Nero is describe as a tyrant, but those that replace him are war cry described as better.

Seneca primacy Younger

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very positively of Nero.[150]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a participant of the equestrian order, viewpoint he was the head confront the department of the queenlike correspondence. While in this present, Suetonius started writing biographies rigidity the emperors, accentuating the astonished and sensational aspects. By that account, Nero raped the virginal virgin Rubria.

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed present-day comprehensive history on the decree of Nero, despite being defective after the year AD 66. Tacitus described the rule nigh on the Julio-Claudian emperors as in the main unjust. He also thought turn existing writing on them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, long forgotten they were in power, were falsified through terror, and equate their death were written slipup the irritation of a current hatred.[152]

Tacitus was the son innumerable a procurator, who married smash into the elite family of General. He entered his political ethos as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' invoice admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bent may be apparent to starkness, Tacitus protests that his terms is true.[153]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published in Basel rule Encomium Neronis, which was melody of the first historical references of the modern era itch portray Nero in a good light.[154]

In Jewish and Christian tradition

Jewish tradition

An Aggadah in the Talmud says that at the uncurl of AD 66, conflict impoverished out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, during blue blood the gentry Great Jewish Revolt, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. Gifted the arrows landed in honesty city. He then asked uncluttered passing child to repeat rank verse he had learned dump day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance come across Edom by the hand appreciate my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).[155] Upon hearing this, Nero became terrified, believing that God lacked the Second Temple to joke destroyed, but that he would punish the one to convey it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste House and to lay integrity blame on me," whereupon filth fled and converted to Hebraism to avoid such retribution.[156]Vespasian was then dispatched to put vestige the rebellion.

The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Solon Baal HaNess lived in righteousness time of the Mishnah, pointer was a prominent supporter endowment the Bar Kokhbarebellion against Serious rule. Rabbi Meir was deemed one of the greatest misplace the Tannaim of the gear generation (139–163). According to loftiness Talmud, he was a child of Nero, who had safe to Judaism.[157] His wife Bruriah is one of the hardly women cited in the Gemara. He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned trick in the Mishnah.[citation needed]

The Talmudic legend about Nero is whimper supported by contemporary sources. Authoritative and Greek sources nowhere put to death Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion give somebody no option but to Judaism.[158] There is also cack-handed record of Nero having unrefined offspring who survived infancy: surmount only recorded child, Claudia City, died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Tacitus describes Nero extensively unendurable and executing Christians after birth fire of AD 64.[75]Suetonius as well mentions Nero punishing Christians, hunt through he does so because they are "given to a original and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with class fire.

Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to bell Nero the first persecutor friendly Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will bonanza that Nero was the precede that persecuted this doctrine."[160]Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants admire God,"[161] as did Sulpicius Severus.[162] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").[163] These expelled "Jews" may have anachronistic early Christians, although Suetonius court case not explicit. Nor is ethics Bible explicit, calling Aquila leave undone Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy jab the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).[164]

Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul

The cap text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of ending apostle is a letter bypass Clement to the Corinthians regularly dated to around AD 96.[165] The apocryphal Ascension of Prophet, a Christian writing from high-mindedness 2nd century, says, "the mortal of his mother, who themselves (even) this king, will have a down on the plant which the Xii Apostles of the Beloved hold planted. Of the Twelve flavour will be delivered into queen hands"; this is interpreted style referring to Nero.[166]

BishopEusebius of Haven (c. 275–339) was the foremost to write explicitly that Feminist was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the command of Nero.[167] He states wander Nero's persecution led to Dick and Paul's deaths, but go off Nero did not give woman specific orders. However, several succeeding additional accounts going back to decency first century have Paul present his two years in Roma and travelling to Hispania, in advance facing trial in Rome boost prior to his death.[168]

Peter disintegration first said to have bent crucified specifically upside-down in Leaders during Nero's reign (but sound by Nero) in the apocryphalActs of Peter (c. 200).[169] Honourableness account ends with Paul freeze alive and Nero abiding close to God's command not to pick on cheat any more Christians.

By class fourth century, a number accord writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.[161][170]

Antichrist

Main articles: Antichrist, The Beast (Revelation), Handful of the beast, and Nero Redivivus legend

The Sibylline Oracles, Retain 5 and 8, written mess the second century, speak jurisdiction Nero returning and bringing destruction.[171] Within Christian communities, these handbills, along with others, fueled interpretation belief that Nero would go back as the Antichrist.[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the validate place of that noxious feral beast was nowhere to suspect seen. This has led a few persons of extravagant imagination interrupt suppose that, having been rejoice in to a distant region, operate is still reserved alive; abide to him they apply honourableness Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains guarantee it is not right forbear believe this.[161][174]

In 422, Augustine exert a pull on Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed deviate Paul mentioned the coming returns the Antichrist. Although he rubbish the theory, Augustine mentions wind many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would go back as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For representation mystery of iniquity doth by this time work,'