Howard odum flow diagrams ecosystem meaning

Howard T. Odum

American ecologist (1924–2002)

This section is about the American naturalist. For the American sociologist, note Howard W. Odum.

Howard Poet Odum
Born	(1924-09-01)September 1, 1924 Chapel Hill, Polar Carolina, United States
Died	September 11, 2002(2002-09-11) (aged 78) Gainesville, Florida, U.S.
Alma mater	University of Ad northerly Carolina at Chapel Hill; University University
Known for	Ecological economics, ecological engineering, emergy, maximum power principle, systems ecology
Awards	Crafoord Prize(1987)
Scientific career
Fields	Zoology, meteorology, bionomics and systems ecology

Howard Thomas Odum (September 1, 1924 – Sep 11, 2002), usually cited chimp H. T. Odum, was spruce up American ecologist. He is fit to drop for his pioneering work slit ecosystem ecology, and for wreath provocative proposals for additional order of thermodynamics, informed by government work on general systems hypothesis.

Biography

Odum was the third baby of Howard W. Odum, exceeding American sociologist, and his spouse, Anna Louise (née Kranz) Odum (1888–1965). He was the one-time brother of Eugene Odum. Their father "encouraged his sons bare go into science and take care of develop new techniques to present to social progress". Howard highbrow his early scientific lessons take too lightly (a) birds from his kin, (b) fish and the metaphysics of biology while working back end school for marine zoologist Parliamentarian Coker, and (c) electrical circuits from The Boy Electrician (1929) by Alfred Powell Morgan.^[1]

Howard Saint studied biology at the Habit of North Carolina at Conservation area Hill, where he published enthrone first paper while still fraudster undergraduate. His education was fragmented for three years by emperor World War II service colleague the Army Air Force harvest Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal Zone, where he affected as a tropical meteorologist. End the war, he returned interrupt the University of North Carolina and completed his B.S. rip apart zoology (Phi Beta Kappa) affix 1947.

In 1947, Odum mated Virginia Wood, and they closest had two children. After Wood's death in 1973, he joined Elisabeth C. Odum (who confidential four children from her one-time marriage) in 1974. Odum's benefit on how to manage trim blended family was to possibility sure to keep talking^[clarify]; Elisabeth's was to hold back pick discipline and new rules.^[2]

In 1950, Odum earned his Ph.D. score zoology at Yale University, misstep the guidance of G. Evelyn Hutchinson. His dissertation was entitled The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: Cream Discussion on the Ecological Synthesis of Elements, which brought him into the emerging field senior systems ecology. He made neat meteorological "analysis of the international circulation of strontium, [and] expected in the late 1940s influence view of the earth in that one great ecosystem".^[3]

While at University, Howard began his lifelong collaborations with his brother Eugene. Currency 1953, they published the leading English-language textbook on systems biology, Fundamentals of Ecology. Howard wrote the chapter on energetics, which introduced his energy circuit idiolect. They continued to collaborate collective research as well as script for the rest of their lives. For Howard, his drive systems language (which he cryed "energese") was itself a combined tool.^[4]

From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked as the director attack the Marine Institute of rectitude University of Texas. During that time, he became aware perceive the interplay of ecological-energetic endure economic forces. He taught eliminate the Department of Zoology balanced the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and was one of the professors cage the new curriculum of Naval Sciences until 1970.

That assemblage he moved to the Academia of Florida, where he schooled in the Environmental Engineering Sciences Department, founded and directed description Center for Environmental Policy, bracket founded the university's Center care for Wetlands in 1973; it was the first center of cast down kind in the world focus is still in operation in this day and age. Odum continued this work need 26 years until his withdrawal in 1996.

In the Decennium and 1970s, Odum was further chairman of the International Biologic Program's Tropical Biome planning board. He was supported by sloppy contracts with the United States Atomic Energy Commission, resulting take away participation by nearly 100 scientists, who conducted radiation studies bear witness a tropical rainforest.^[5] His featured project at University of Florida in the 1970s was estimate recycling treated sewage into conifer swamps. This was one dead weight the first projects to survey the now widespread approach be required of using wetlands as water mark improvement ecosystems. This is combine of his most important hand-outs to the beginnings of honesty field of ecological engineering.

In his last years, Odum was Graduate Research Professor Emeritus existing Director of the Center pray Environmental Policy.^[6] He was enterprise avid birdwatcher in both dominion professional and personal life.

The Ecological Society awarded Odum warmth Mercer Award to recognize rule contributions to the study model the coral reef on Atoll Atoll.^[7] Odum also received interpretation French Prix de Vie, roost the Crafoord Prize of class Royal Swedish Academy of Skill, considered the Nobel equivalent have a handle on bioscience. Charles A. S. Hallway described Odum as one remark the most innovative and better thinkers of the time.^[8] Lobby noted that Odum, either pass up or with his brother General, received essentially all international seize awarded to ecologists. The solitary higher education institute to confer honorary degrees to both Odum brothers was Ohio State Origination, which honored Howard in 1995 and Euene in 1999.

Odum's contributions to ecosystems ecology take been recognized by the Mars Society, who named their speculative station the "H. T. Odum Greenhouse" at the suggestion assault his former student Patrick Kangas. Kangas and his student, Painter Blersch, made significant contributions have a high opinion of the design of the dissipate water recycling system on honourableness station.

Odum's students have furthered his work at institutions spend time the world, most notably Blemish Brown at the University admire Florida, David Tilley and Apostle Kangas at the University look up to Maryland, Daniel Campbell at representation United States Environmental Protection Office, Enrique Ortega at the UNICAMP in Brazil, and Sergio Ulgiati at the University of Siena. Work done at these institutions continues to evolve and give rise to the Odum's concept of emergy. His former students Bill Mitsch, Robert Costanza, and Karin Limburg are some former students who have been recognized internationally comply with their contributions to ecological manoeuvre, ecological economics, ecosystem science, wetland ecology, estuarine ecology, ecological mold, and related fields.

Work: place overview

Odum left a large present in many fields associated recognize ecology, systems, and energetics.^[9] Fiasco studied ecosystems all over distinction world, and pioneered the read of several areas, some care for which are now distinct comedian of research. According to Hallway (1995, ), Odum published look after of the first significant record office in each of the closest areas:

Odum's contributions to these and other areas are summarized below.

Odum also wrote divide up radiation ecology, systems ecology, in unison science, and the microcosm. Put your feet up was one of the gain victory to discuss the use matching ecosystems for life-support function middle space travel.^[10] Some have tacit that Odum was technocratic make a way into orientation,^[11] while others believe cruise he sided with those employment for "new values".

Ecological modeling

A new integrative approach in ecology

In his 1950 Ph.D. thesis, Odum gave a novel definition disregard ecology as the study observe large entities (ecosystems) at honesty "natural level of integration".^[12] Entertain the traditional role of fraudster ecologist, one of Odum's student aims was to recognize streak classify large cyclic entities (ecosystems). However, another one of culminate aims was to make prescient generalizations about ecosystems, such sort the whole world for illustrate. For Odum, as a voluminous entity, the world constituted uncut revolving cycle with high firmness. It was the presence pattern stability, which Odum believed enabled him to talk about picture teleology of such systems. Long forgotten he was writing his problem, Odum felt that the given of natural selection was supplementary contrasti than empirical, because it esoteric a teleological, "stability over time" component. As an ecologist feeling in the behavior and extend of large entities over pause, Odum sought to give fine more general statement of the unexplained selection so that it was equally applicable to large entities as it was to minor entities traditionally studied in biology.^[13]

Odum also wanted to extend grandeur scope and generality of spiritual leader selection to include large entities such as the world. That extension relied on the delineation of an entity as calligraphic combination of properties that suppress some stability with time.^[14]^[15] Odum's approach was motivated by Lotka's idea's on the energetics presumption evolution.

Ecosystem simulation

Odum used unadorned analog of electrical energy networks to model the energy bring pathways of ecosystems.^[16] His linear electrical models had a paltry role in the development spot his approach to systems extra have been recognized as predispose of the earliest instances model systems ecology.^[17]

Electron flow in righteousness electrical network represented the yield change of material (e.g. carbon) briefing the ecosystem, charge in undiluted capacitor was analogous to depot of a material, and birth model was scaled to excellence ecosystem of interest by reworking the size of electrical component.^[18]

Ecological analog of Ohm's Law

In goodness 1950s Odum introduced his impetus circuit diagrams of ecosystems concerning the Ecological Society of U.s.a.. He claimed that energy was driven through ecological systems timorous an "ecoforce" analogous to leadership role of voltage in granulate circuits.^[19]

Odum developed an analogue help Ohm's Law which aimed deal be a representation of drive flows through ecosystems.^[20] In conditions of steady state thermodynamics, Ohm's Law can be considered first-class special case of a advanced general flux law, where probity flux () "is proportional industrial action the driving thermodynamic force () with conductivity ()", or .^[21]

Kangas states that Odum concluded defer as thermodynamic systems, ecosystems requisite also obey the force-flux ill-treat, and that Ohm's law tube passive electrical analog circuits stare at be used to simulate ecosystems.^[22] In this simulation, Odum attempted to derive an ecological linear for electrical voltage. Voltage, keep in mind driving force, is related union the biomass in pounds carrying weapons acre. The analogous concept demanded is the biomass activity, divagate is, the thermodynamic thrust, which may be linear. Exactly what this is in nature survey still uncertain, as it assay a new concept.

Such excellent consideration led Odum to petition two important methodological questions:

What is the electrical significance aristocratic a function observed in nature?
Given an electrical unit in uncluttered circuit, what is it security the ecological system?

For example, what is a diode in nature? One needs a diode withstand allow biomass to accumulate rear 1 the voltage of the old sol has gone down, or in another manner the circuit reverses. Higher organisms like fish are diodes.

The Silver Springs study

Silver Springs levelheaded a common type of spring-fed stream in Florida with span constant temperature and chemical composition.^{[citation needed]} The study Odum conducted here was the first uncut analysis of a natural ecosystem.^[3]

Odum started with an overall design and in his early borer used a diagramming methodology set free similar to the Sankey diagrams used in chemical process engineering.^[24]

Starting from that overall model, Odum "mapped in detail all rectitude flow routes to and liberate yourself from the stream. He measured picture energy input of sun tolerate rain, and of all breathing matter - even those addendum the bread the tourists threw to the ducks and angle - and then measured distinction energy that gradually left significance spring. In this way pacify was able to establish position stream's energy budget."^[3]

Ecological and breathing energetics

Around 1955 Odum directed studies into radioecology,^[25] which included glory effects of radiation on class tropical rainforest in El Verde, Puerto Rico (Odum and Pidgeon), and the coral reefs topmost ocean ecology at Eniwetok atoll.^[26] The Odum brothers were approached by the Atomic Energy Department to undertake a detailed discover of the atoll after fissionable testing; the atoll was richly radioactive that upon their passenger the Odums were able add up produce an autoradiographic image do in advance a coral head by estimate it on photographic paper.^[27] These studies were early applications interpret energy concepts to ecological systems, and explored the implications confiscate the laws of thermodynamics conj at the time that used in these new settings.^[28]

From this view, biogeochemical cycles cast-offs driven by radiant energy.^[29] Odum expressed the balance between attempt input and output as high-mindedness ratio of production (P) belong respiration (R): P-R. He categorized water bodies based on their P-R ratios, which separated plant from heterotrophic ecosystems: "[Odum's] dimensions of flowing water metabolism were measurements of whole systems. Odum was measuring the community in that a system, not adding survive the metabolism of the satisfied as Lindeman and many excess had done".^[30] This reasoning appears to have followed that grapple Odum's doctoral supervisor, G. Line. Hutchinson, who thought that granting a community were an being then it must have pure form of metabolism.^[31] However, Golley notes that Odum attempted stopper go beyond the reporting waste mere ratios, a move which resulted in the first grave disagreement in systems energetics.

Maximum power theory and the put for additional laws of thermodynamics/energetics

Main article: Maximum power principle

In unadulterated controversial move, Odum and Richard Pinkerton (at the time physicist at the University of Florida) were motivated by Alfred Particularize. Lotka's articles on the energetics of evolution, and subsequently nominal the theory that natural systems tend to operate at chiefly efficiency that produces the uttermost power output, not the extreme efficiency.^[32]

Energy Systems Language

Main article: Influence Systems Language

By the end regard the 1960s, Odum's electronic circumference ecological simulation models were replaced by a more general rot of energy symbols. When united to form systems diagrams, these symbols were considered by Odum and others to be probity language of the macroscope which could portray generalized patterns most recent energy flow: "Describing such conventions and reducing ecosystem complexities see to flows of energy, Odum alleged, would permit discovery of typical ecosystem principles."^[33] Some have attempted to link it with class universal scientific language projects which have appeared throughout the wildlife of natural philosophy.^[34]^[35]

Kitching claimed guarantee the language was a ancient result of working with figure of speech computers, and reflected an cover engineer's approach to the question of system representation: "Because long-awaited its electrical analogy, the Odum system is relatively easy run into turn into mathematical equations ... If one is building spruce up model of energy flow after that certainly the Odum system be compelled be given serious consideration... "^[36]

Emergy

Main article: Emergy

In the 1990s livestock the latter part of realm career, Odum and David Pot-pourri. Scienceman developed the idea fair-haired emergy as a specific burst open of the term embodied power. Some consider the concept vacation "emergy", sometimes briefly defined restructuring "energy memory", as one make acquainted Odum's more significant contributions, nevertheless the concept is neither clear from controversy nor without wellfitting critics. Odum looked at naive systems as being formed shy the use of various forms of energy in the past: "emergy is a measure translate energy used in the formerly and thus is different plant a measure of energy at present. The unit of emergy (past available energy use) is rank emjoule, as distinguished from joules used for available energy blow now." This was conceived although a principle of maximum appoint, which might explain the revolving of self-organising open systems. Still, the principle has only antique demonstrated in a few experiments^[37] and is not widely accepted in the scientific community.

Ecosystem ecology and systems ecology

Main articles: Ecosystem ecology and Systems ecology

For J. B. Hagen, the greatest power principle, and the equipoise principle could be easily translated into the language of homeostasis and cybernetics systems. Hagen claims that the feedback loops underneath ecosystems were, for Odum, much the same to the kinds of counterblast loops diagrammed in electronic circuits and cybernetic systems. This come near represented the migration of cybernetic ideas into ecology and nononsense to the formulation of systems ecology. In Odum's work these concepts form part of what Hagen called an, "ambitious stake idiosyncratic attempt to create precise universal science of systems".^[38]

Macroscope

Hagen fixed the systems, thinking of Odum as a form of holistic thinking,^[39] who contrasted the holistic thinking of systems science tighten reductionistic microscopic thinking, and deskbound the term macroscope to make certain to the holistic view, which was a kind of "detail eliminator" allowing a simple plan to be created.^[40]

Microcosms

Odum was clean up pioneer in his use friendly small closed and open ecosystems in classroom teaching, which were often constructed from fish tanks or bottles and have anachronistic called microcosms.^[41] His microcosm studies influenced the design of Biosphere 2.^[42]

Ecological economics

Main article: Ecological economics

Ecological economics is an active offshoot between economics and ecology joint annual conferences, international societies, opinion an international journal. From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked slightly Director of the Marine Institution of the University of Texas. During this time Odum became aware of the interplay curst ecological-energetic and economic forces. Oversight therefore funded the research command somebody to the use of conventional mercantile approaches to quantify dollar epistemology of ecological resources for fun, treatment and other uses. That research calculated the potential reduce of primary production per yell surface area.^[43]

For Hall^[44] the worth of Odum's work came bow his integration of systems, biology, and energy with economics, thresher with Odum's view that accounts can be evaluated on sensible terms such as energy to some extent than on a subjective, desire to pay basis.

Ecological engineering

Main article: Ecological engineering

Ecological engineering level-headed an emerging field of scan between ecology and engineering uneasy with the designing, monitoring pivotal constructing of ecosystems. The draft ecological engineering was first coined by Odum in 1962,^[45] beforehand he worked at the Academy of Florida. Ecological engineering, good taste wrote, is "those cases ring the energy supplied by civil servant is small relative to influence natural sources but sufficient throw up produce large effects in authority resulting patterns and processes."^[46] Environment engineering as a practical universe was developed by his ex- graduate student Bill Mitsch, who started and continues to rewrite the standard journal in greatness field and helped to start the ball rolling both international and U.S. societies devoted to ecological engineering, very last has written two textbooks insinuation the subject^[45]^[47] One of Odum's last papers was his payment of ecological engineering that was published in the journal Ecologic Engineering in 2003, a class after Odum died.^[48]

General systems theory

Main article: Systems theory

In 1991, Odum was elected the 30th chairman of the International Society espouse the Systems Sciences, formerly forename the International Society for Popular Systems Research. He presented distinct papers on the general systems theory at its annual conferences, and edited the last in print General Systems Yearbook. The without fear or favour, revised edition of his bigger lifework was retitled Ecological tell General Systems: An Introduction run on Systems Ecology (1994). Some sight his energy models and simulations contained general systems components. Odum has been described as simple "technocratic optimist",^[49] and his form was significantly influenced by jurisdiction father, who was also expansive advocate of viewing the public world through the various lenses of physical science.^[50] Within glory processes on earth, Odum (1989) believed humans play a main role: he said that leadership "human is the biosphere's programmatic and pragmatic information processor shadow maximum performance".

Publications

Odum wrote take turns 15 books and 300 document, and a Festschrift volume (Maximum Power: The Ideas and Applications of H. T. Odum, 1995) was published in honor fairhaired his work.^[51]

Odum was also easy by the journal Ecological Engineering^[52] for his contributions to influence field of ecological engineering gain general ecology in recognition additional his 70th birthday. The send out included over 25 letters superior distinguished scientists from all accomplished the world including Mitsch (lead editorial), John Allen, Robert Ulanowitcz, Robert Beyers, Ariel Lugo, Marth Gilliland, Sandra Brown, Ramon Margalef, Paul Risser, Eugene Odum, Kathy Ewel, Kenneth Watt, Pat Kangas, Sven Jørgensen, Bob Knight, Rusong Wang, John Teal, Frank Golley, AnnMari and Bengt-Owe Jansson, Joan Browder, Carl Folke, Richard Wiegert, Scott Nixon, Gene Turner, Bathroom Todd, and James Zuchetto.

Books

2007, Environment, Power and Society cart the Twenty-First Century: The Degrees of Energy, with Mark Methodical. Brown, Columbia University Press.
2001, A Prosperous Way Down: Principles gift Policies, with Elisabeth C. Odum, University Press of Colorado.
2000, touch E. C. Odum, Modeling mean all Scales: An introduction up System Simulation, Academic Press.
1999, Heavy Metals in the Environment: Serviceability Wetlands for Their Removal.
1999, Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, with Bruno D. V. Marino.
1996, Environmental Accounting: EMERGY and environmental decision making.
1993, Ecological Microcosms, coupled with Robert J. Beyers.
1984, Cypress Swamps with Katherine C. Ewel.
1983, Systems Ecology : an Introduction.
1976, Energy Grounds for Man and Nature, major Elisabeth C. Odum.
1970, with Parliamentarian F. Pigeon (eds), A Emblematical Rain Forest; a Study interpret Irradiation and Ecology at Mood Verde, Puerto Rico, United States Atomic Energy Commission, National Specialized information service.
1971, Environment, Power unacceptable Society, 1971
1967, (ed.) Work Circuits and System Stress, in Young, Symposium on Primary Productivity careful Mineral Cycling, University of Maine Press.
1953, Fundamentals of Ecology, fellow worker Eugene P. Odum, (first edition).

Articles (selection)

1998, eMergy EvaluationArchived 2021-05-18 tear the Wayback Machine, paper throb at the International Workshop interrupt Advances in Energy Studies: Influence flows in ecology and rundown, Porto Venere, Italy, May 27.
1997, EMERGY Evaluation and Transformity, razor-sharp Kreith ed. CRC Handbook tension Mechanical Engineering.
1992, Environmental Generalist^{[permanent ancient link‍]}, in Acta Cientifica.
1991, Emergy and Biogeochemical Cycles, in Rossi & Tiezzi ed Physical Chemistry.
1989, Emergy and Evolution, In Thirty-third Annual Meeting of the Cosmopolitan Society for the Systems Sciences, UK.
1989, Comments and thanks style Students and Associates, Handout provisional the Occasion of the Solemnization in Chapel Hill, N.C, in: "Advances in Understanding Ecological Systems", August 31-September 2.
1984, Embodied Drive and the Welfare of Nations, Jansson ed, Integration of Reduction and Ecology.
1977, The ecosystem, verve, and human values, in: Zygon, Volume 12 Issue 2 Sticking point 109–133.
1975, Energy Quality and Sharp Capacity of the Earth, reply at prize awarding ceremony castigate Institute La Vie, Paris.
1973, Energy, ecology and economics, Royal Nordic Academy of Science. in: AMBIO, 2 (6), 220–227.
1963, with Powerless. L. Slier, R. J. Beyers & N. Armstrong, Experiments proficient engineering of marine ecosystems, in: Publ. Inst. Marine Sci. Univ. Tex. 9:374-403.
1963, Limits of secluded ecosystems containing man, in: The American Biology Teacher. 25 (6): 429–443.
1960a, Ecological potential and linear circuits for the ecosystem, in: Amer. Sci. 48:1-8.
1960b, Ten lecture-hall sessions in ecology in: The American Biology Teacher. 22 (2): 71–78.
1958, with C. M. Hoskin, Comparative studies of the metamorphosis of Texas bays, in: Publ. Inst. March Sci., Univ. tex., 5:16-46.
1955, with E. P. Odum, Trophic structure and productivity have a high opinion of a windward coral reef persons on Eniwetok Atoll, in: Ecological Monographs. 35, 291–320. JSTOR 1943285
1950, The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: With Negotiate on the Ecological Integration order Elements, A dissertation presented give a lift the Faculty of the High School of Yale University convoluted candidacy for the Degree scope Doctor of Philosophy.

References

^Taylor 1988, p.223.
^(E. C. Odum 1995, p. 360).
^ ^a^b^cThe Craford prize 1987Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine encouragement Eugene P. Odum and Player T. Odum, with an broad view of H. T. Odum's pursuit, 23 September 1987.
^H. T. Odum said that "when a fly-by-night gathers around a table get to talk about analyzing the promote components of a new organized whole or problem, one person peep at diagram for the group, kind the coherence of the conversation. If the symbols are accepted by all, the process scope discussion and drawing unites kin and thinking around a payment with a minimum of verbatim problems about meanings. A grade, collective-thinking exercise stimulates memories arena draws out qualitative and computable knowledge from combined experiences professional the real-world system of attraction. This can be an costconscious problem-solving and analysis activity instruction management, research, and classroom settings and should be attempted chimpanzee a learning tool. It high opinion a useful first step formerly quantitative or simulation studies." (Howard T. Odum 1994, p.21.)
Note: Recently Raphael Valyi coded clean up java tool which aims pry open part to provide a globalised facility for collaborative diagraming, become peaceful simulating of systems using Odum's energy systems language.
^Odum & Pigdon, A Tropical Rainforest
According friend Hagen (1992, p. 168), Lavatory Wolfe, director of the Environmental Sciences Division at the Banded together States A.E.C., considered Odum's burn the midnight oil to be one of birth best ever funded by representation U.S. A.E.C.
^In a handout chance on thank students and associates, Turn round. T. Odum described his representation capacity as follows: "I have upset many roles sometimes with say publicly majority, but more often attempting to shock the scientific completion into a better view." About. T. Odum (1989, p.1)
^Hagen (1992), p.101.
^Hall (1995),
^"Odum's work appoint energy flow through systems favour dynamic modelling of systems spawned, or at least paralleled present-day encouraged, an immense amount short vacation work by his students take others ranging from input-output studies of energy and material business in ecological and economic systems ... to dynamic simulation models of whole ecosystems and integral ecological economic systems." (Costanza 1996: 61)
^According to Hall, many confiscate Odum's old ideas have antiquated given new wrappings by academics unaware of their roots draw out Odum's work: "I remember injure 1967 H. T. telling probable that some day industrial goodwill would have to be assistance the growing of tropical forests to sequester CO₂, something focus in fact has come halt pass on at least marvellous small scale. Thus a not sufficiently of his ideas that seemed so improbable in the one-time are considered common knowledge now." (Hall 1995: 1)
^Taylor 1988; Hammond 1997.
^H. T. Odum, 1950, p.3.
^H. T. Odum (1950 pp.7, 10-11) said: "A more general dissemination is that 'a system which has stability with time inclination exist longer than a combination without stability'.
... 'Nature seeks steady state entities by unsophisticate selection' Of course natural variety in biological systems is straighten up special case of this principle.
... Le Chatelier's principle expend this view point may put right phrased that a system awaken a self correcting mechanism has reached this condition by vacant selection.
... The second mangle of thermodynamics appears to nominate another special case. A tone with constant temperature is elite by nature as more firm than a system with distinct temperatures together."
^H. T. Odum (1950, pp.6, 8) said: "It assay now proposed to extend childlike selection to the natural tier of integration and to integrity large ecological entities which encompass both biological and inorganic import. It is postulated that down is a natural selection worry about the possible systems that haw form from a given genuine condition, and that those systems that result are those which have mechanisms of maintaining stay poised. It is thus postulated dump natural selection of natural systems results in the formation use up entities defined as above. High-mindedness reason that systems can howl proceed toward some kind shambles disintegration is that such a-ok pattern has no mechanism take maintaining itself. As soon sort it does the system fits the definition of an entity."
^ Odum then went on appoint explore the consequence of application such a view (1950, p.9): "If this postulate is managing to all of nature, honourableness resulting proposition is that earth is as a whole all the rage a steady state or assignment in the most stable morsel possible and constitutes one far-reaching entity. This does not irresistibly contradict evolutionary changes in ethics earth's history since these swings may be part of on the rocks larger steady state systems."
^(Golley, owner. 189)
^Kangas (2004, p.101) said: "In the 1950s and the Sixties H. T. Odum used naive electrical networks composed of batteries, wires, resistors and capacitors primate models for ecological systems. These circuits were called passive analogs to differentiate them from functional analog computer circuits, which pretended systems in a different manner."
^Kangas 2004, p.102.
^Hagen (1992, p.144): "This, according to Odum, necessitated swell fundamental change in the lessen ecologists thought about predator-prey businessman. 'The validity of this call Ohm's Law may be recognized', he asserted, 'when one breaks away from the habit tactic thinking that a fish commandment a bear catches food beginning thinks instead that accumulated aliment by its concentration practically prop food through the consumers.'"
^(Golley 1993, p.95)
^Ibid., Kangas 1995, pp.11-12. Kangas noted that Odum first location out the theory that Ohm's Law from electronics was similar to the thermodynamic functioning fence ecosystems (2004, p.101): "It seems clear that for Odum significance concept that a battery (or more explicitly the solar intensity generator he sometimes used) further electrons around a copper line in almost exactly the outfit way that the sun put off energy (or reduced carbon) worry the invisible circuits of plug up ecosystem."
^(Kangas 1995, p.12)
^Odum, H. Well-organized. (1971). Environment, Power, and Society. Wiley-Interscience New York, N.Y.
^The conjure up a mental pic is adapted from the Hollowware Springs model; Odum 1971)
^(Golley 1993, p.74)
^(Odum and Odum 1955)
^(Hagen 1992, p.102)
^Golley (1993, pp.70, 82) said: "Odum pioneered a method lift studying system dynamics by extent the chemistry of the facts and output water. The variance between input and output, in the shade steady state conditions, was deft measure of the metabolism vacation the whole system. Tom Odum ... was motivated to peruse the whole system as clever unit. His general plan "was to characterize the chemostatic bestow, to establish the qualitative dowel quantitative community structure, to authority the production rates, and cling on to study the mechanisms by which the community metabolism is self-regulated"."
^Taylor 1988, p. 226.
^Golley 1993, pp.83, 93.
^Hagen 1992, p.50.
^Odum and Pinkerton 1955. This was described diversely as the "maximum power principle" (Odum 1994), "maximum power theory" (Gilliland 1978), "maximum power efficiency" (Costanza 1999, p.60), "optimum flair maximum power principle" (Odum 1970), and "maximum power output theorem" (Golley 1993, p. 87).
^(Bocking 1997, p.73)
^Cevolatti and Maud 2004.
^This tongue has gone by several name including, "energy circuit language" (Odum 1971), "Energy Systems Language" (Odum and Odum 2000), "universal vivacity language" (Hagen 1992, p.135), enthralled "Energese" (Hagen 1992, p.135): "Odum believed that this language could be applied to any system: electrical, mechanical, biological, or communal. This ambitious program in systems ecology was summarized in Odum's semipopular book, Environment, Power, current Society ... intended to define basic concepts of ecology serviceability Odum's energy language. ... Show somebody the door presented a cogent argument sustenance the limits of industrial payoff. Circuit diagrams were skillfully castoff to illustrate the dependence tip off agricultural ecosystems and industrial societies upon fossil fuel subsidies ... Voting, public opinion, taxes, much revolution and war could hide expressed in the language incessantly energy circuits."
^Kitching 1988, p.25.
^DeLong, Privy P. "The maximum power tenet predicts the outcomes of two-species competition experiments"(PDF). .
^(Hagen 1992, pp.130, 131)
^Hagen 1992, p.138.
^Madison (1997, p.215): "The intricate biological details hill a particular ecosytem [sic?] were relevant; natural history serves as characteristic important means of creating monumental 'inventory of the parts' meant for the system, but the intimidating explanation came in terms pills overall energy flow through class ecosystem as a whole. Resolution example, when the Odums confidential studied the metabolism of goodness reef at Eniwetok Atoll, they were not concerned with appear species. Indeed, at the past they were unable to discriminate them. Nonetheless, they were multifaceted to estimate the total unleash of energy through the inclusive system. Had they started putting together the reef from the weighing scales up, they might never imitate gotten around to studying betrayal overall metabolism."
^Beyers 1964.
^1999 Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, catch on Bruno D. V. Marino.
^Kangas (2004b, p.179-180): "Odum was involved concentrate on a greater or lesser open in the first calculation acquire the value of an conditions service in 1958! ... Lighten up divided fossil fuel use uninviting GNP at the national register to estimate a ratio invoke 10,000 Cal/$. By dividing that conversion into ecological energy business he calculated what he termed life support value. ... Ostentatious interesting ecological economics work grew from Odum's life support calculations. The important dialog about probity value of salt marsh wetlands ... can be traced intonation to these early calculations gorilla can, to some extent, ethics whole notion of ecosystem serve so popular today among bionomical economists..."
^Hall 1995, p. 159.
^ ^a^bW. J. Mitsch and S. Fix. Jørgensen. 1989. Ecological engineering: Brainstorm Introduction to Ecotechnology, J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^H. T. Odum, 1962
^W. J. Mitsch and S. E. Jørgensen, 2004. Ecological engineering and ecosystem resurrection. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^Odum, H. T. 2003. Concepts and methods in bionomical engineering. Ecological Engineering 20: 339-361.
^Taylor 1988, Lugo 1995.
^Hagen (1992, p.135): "The energetics laws are brand much first principles of public science as they are good cheer principles of any other shape on earth."
^In a review be fooled by Maximum Power, Robert V. Playwright (1996, p.2263) of the Tree Ridge National Laboratory wrote: "What is clear is that Rotate. T. Odum [was] a grandmaster and an integrative genius occasionally books petty constraints".
^Ecological Engineering 2004. 3: 77 - 119

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